Is inheritance necessary for encapsulation, abstraction and polymorphism?

• Is Encapsulation possible without inheritance?

Yes, because Encapsulation is the ability to hide a class properties from the outside world by means of access methods.

• Is Abstraction possible without inheritance?

Well, abstraction can refer to many things, but talking about OOP: No, an abstract class cannot be used directly, you can only instantiate inherited classes.

• Is Polymorphism possible without inheritance?

Yes, polymorphism is the construction of a single interface to several types of objects, for instance, a single function call that can receive different classes or data types as arguments. They can be inherited or not.